Valence state: The combining capacity of an atom or radical determined by the number of electrons that it will lose, add, or share when it reacts with other atoms.
free product: A NAPL found in the subsurface in sufficient quantity that it can be partially recovered by pumping or gravity drain.
aerobic: Direct aerobic metabolism involves microbial reactions that require oxygen to go forward. The bacteria uses a carbon substrate as the electron donor and oxygen as the electron acceptor. Degradation of contaminants that are susceptible to aerobic degradation but not anaerobic often ceases in the vicinity of the source zone because of oxygen depletion. This can sometimes be reversed by adding oxygen in the form of air (air sparging, bioventing), ozone, or slow oxygen release compound (e.g., ORC(r)).
Aerobic dechlorination may also occur via cometabolism where the dechlorination is incidental to the metabolic activities of the organisms. In this case, contaminants are degraded by microbial enzymes that are metabolizing other organic substrates. Cometabolic dechlorination does not appear to produce energy for the organism. At pilot- or full-scale treatment, cometabolic and direct dechlorination may be indistinguishable, and both processes may contribute to contaminant removal. For aerobic cometabolism to occur there must be sufficient oxygen and a suitable substrate which allows the microbe to produce the appropriate enzyme. These conditions may be present naturally but often in the presence of a source area oxygen and a substrate such as methane or propane will need to be introduced.
Adapted from US. EPA 2006 Engineering Issue: In Situ and Ex Situ Biodegradation Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Sites
anaerobic: Direct anaerobic metabolism involves microbial reactions occurring in the absence of oxygen and encompasses many processes, including fermentation, methanogenesis, reductive dechlorination, sulfate-reducing activities, and denitrification. Depending on the contaminant of concern, a subset of these activities may be cultivated. In anaerobic metabolism, nitrate, sulfate, carbon dioxide, oxidized metals, or organic compounds may replace oxygen as the electron acceptor.
Anaerobic dechlorination also may occur via cometabolism where the dechlorination is incidental to the metabolic activities of the organisms. In this case, contaminants are degraded by microbial enzymes that are metabolizing other organic substrates. Cometabolic dechlorination does not appear to produce energy for the organism. At pilot- or full-scale treatment, cometabolic and direct dechlorination may be indistinguishable, and both processes may contribute to contaminant removal.
Quoted from US. EPA 2006 Engineering Issue: In Situ and Ex Situ Biodegradation Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Sites
architecture: "Architecture" refers to the physical distribution of the contaminant in the subsurface. Residuals that take the form of long thin ganglia or small dispersed globules provide a larger surface area that will dissolve much faster than if the same amount of liquid were concentrated in a competent pool.
Sources: For purposes of this discussion, a DNAPL source zone includes the zone that encompasses the entire subsurface volume in which DNAPL is present either at residual saturation or as "pools" of accumulation above confining units. In addition, the DNAPL source zone includes regions that have come into contact with DNAPL that may be storing contaminant mass as a result of diffusion of DNAPL into the soil or rock matrix.
source zone: For purposes of this discussion, a DNAPL source zone includes the zone that encompasses the entire subsurface volume in which DNAPL is present either at residual saturation or as "pools" of accumulation above confining units. In addition, the DNAPL source zone includes regions that have come into contact with DNAPL that may be storing contaminant mass as a result of diffusion of DNAPL into the soil or rock matrix.
focal ulceration: The process or fact of a localized area being eroded away.
metaplasia of the glandular stomach: A change of cells to a form that does not normally occur in the tissue in which it is found.
hyperplasia of the glandular stomach: A condition in which there is an increase in the number of normal cells in a tissue or organ.
histiocytic: Degenerative.
duodenum: First part of the small intestine.
microcytic: Any abnormally small cell.
squamous cell papillomas: A small solid benign tumor with a clear-cut border that projects above the surrounding tissue.
squamous cell carcinomas: Cancer that begins in squamous cells-thin, flat cells that look under the microscope like fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Squamous cell carcinomas may arise in any of these tissues.
jejunum: The middle portion of the small intestine, between duodenum and ileum. It represents about 2/5 of the remaining portion of the small intestine below duodenum.
ileum: The distal and narrowest portion of the small intestine.
squamous: Flat cells that look like fish scales.
metaplasia: A condition in which there is a change of one adult cell type to another similar adult cell type.
ossification: The process of creating bone, that is of transforming cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into bone.
clastogenesis: Any process resulting in the breakage of chromosomes.
neoplastic: Abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells.
ulceration: The process or fact of being eroded away.
leucocytosis: An elevation of the total number of white cells in blood.
neutrophils: A type of white blood cell.
chromodulin: A small protein that binds four trivalent chromium ions.
biomagnification: The increased accumulation and concentration of a contaminant at higher levels of the food chain; organisms higher on the food chain will have larger amounts of contaminants than those lower on the food chain, because the contaminants are not eliminated or broken down into other chemicals within the organisms.
exencephaly: Cerebral tissue herniation through a congenital or acquired defect in the skull.
everted viscera: Rotated body organs in the chest cavity.
To Be Considered: Documents, such as federal or state guidances, that are not legally binding but may be relevant to the topic in question.
gaining: A gaining surface water body is one where groundwater flows into it.
losing: A surface water body is losing when there is a permeable sediment bed that is not in contact with the groundwater allowing the surface water to seep through it.
fluvial: Of or pertaining to flow in rivers and streams.
lacustrine: Of or pertaining to a lake as in lacustrine sediments—sediments at the bottom of a lake.
lipid: Any class of fats that are insoluble in water.
lipophilic: Able to dissolve in lipids—in this case fatty tissue.
organelles: A part of a cell such as mitochondrion, vacuole, or chloroplast that plays a specific role in how the cell functions and membranes.
RfD: The RfD is an estimate of a daily exposure of the human population (including sensitive sub-groups) to a substance that is likely to be without "the appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime." An RfD is expressed in units of mg/kg-day.
autonomic: That part of the nervous system that controls non-conscious actions such as heart rate, perspiration and digestion.
ataxia: Lack of muscle coordination.
funnel-and-gate configuration: A system where low-permeability walls (the funnel) placed in the saturated zone direct contaminated ground-water toward a permeable treatment zone (the gate)
Hekster, F.M., R.W.P.M. Laane, and P. de Voogt. 2003. Environmental and toxicity effects of perfluoroalkylated substances. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 179:99-121.
Higgins, C. and R. Luthy. 2006. Sorption of perfluorinated surfactants on sediments. Environmental Science & Technology 40(23):7251-7256.
Kaiser, M.A., B.S. Larsen, C-P.C. Kao, and R.C. Buck. 2005. Vapor pressures of perfluorooctanoic, -nonanoic, -decanoic, -undecanoic, and -dodecanoic acids. Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data 50(6):1841-1843.
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1,1-Dichloroethene (1,1-DCE, CAS # 75-35-4) is a highly volatile and flammable chemical. However, it is heavier than air, and therefore its vapors tend to collect in low areas after a spill. Montgomery and Welkom (1991) estimate the log Koc of 1,1-DCE as 1.81, the log Kow as 2.13 or 1.48 (different sources), and the Henry's constant as 0.021 atm-m3/mole. The solubility of 1,1-DCE is about 400 mg/L at 20° C and its specific gravity is 1.22. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry has developed a Toxicological Profile for 1,1-Dichloroethene that contains a useful summary table of the physical properties of 1,1-DCE.
The low calculated Koc value for 1,1-DCE in soil indicates that 1,1-DCE is likely to move quickly through soil and sediment.
The relatively high Henry's constant value indicates a propensity for 1,1-DCE to volatilize out of water. This property has two implications for environmental remediation. When 1,1-DCE is in a dissolved-phase ground water plume that discharges into a moving body of water, it is very likely to volatilize relatively quickly. Information on PubChem suggests that the half life of 1,1-DCE in a one-meter deep river is about three hours, and in a lake, the half life is about four days. The second implication is that 1,1-DCE may be very susceptible to air sparging as a cleanup technology when subsurface conditions permit.
Because of the low Kow of 1,1-DCE, bioaccumulation is not expected to occur to any significant extent. 1,1-DCE can be degraded by microbial action under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. While it is more easily degraded under anaerobic conditions, the necessary microbial species may not be present in some aquifers. For more information see the Treatment Technologies section.
When released to the atmosphere, hydroxyl radicals are expected to degrade 1,1-DCE with a half life of 1.5 days. Under photochemical smog situations with nitrogen dioxide present the half life falls to less than two hours. Degradation products of 1,1-DCE in the presence of nitrogen oxides include chloroacetyl chloride, phosgene, formaldehyde, formic acid, hydrochloric acid, carbon monoxide, and nitric acid (PubChem).
1,1-DCE is reactive with aluminum, sunlight, air, copper, and heat (Note: polymerization may occur if exposed to oxidizers, chlorosulfonic acid, nitric acid, or oleum. Inhibitors, such as the monomethyl ether of hydroquinone, are added to prevent polymerization). The NIOSH Pocket Guide to Hazardous Chemicals contains more information on the chemical physical properties of 1,1-DCE.
This document is a comprehensive review of the physical/chemistry properties, fate and transport, human and ecological health effects, and occurrence of 1,1-DCE.
Groundwater Chemicals Desk Reference
Montgomery, J. and L. Welkom. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1991, 640 pp
This book provides a summary of physical and chemical properties of a variety of chemicals, including 1,1-DCP.
1,1-Dichloroethene (1,1-DCE, CAS # 75-35-4) is a highly volatile and flammable chemical. However, it is heavier than air, and therefore its vapors tend to collect in low areas after a spill. Montgomery and Welkom (1991) estimate the log Koc of 1,1-DCE as 1.81, the log Kow as 2.13 or 1.48 (different sources), and the Henry's constant as 0.021 atm-m3/mole. The solubility of 1,1-DCE is about 400 mg/L at 20° C and its specific gravity is 1.22. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry has developed a Toxicological Profile for 1,1-Dichloroethene that contains a useful summary table
of the physical properties of 1,1-DCE.
Toxicological Profile for 1,1-Dichloroethene 
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