Valence state: The combining capacity of an atom or radical determined by the number of electrons that it will lose, add, or share when it reacts with other atoms.
free product: A NAPL found in the subsurface in sufficient quantity that it can be partially recovered by pumping or gravity drain.
aerobic: Direct aerobic metabolism involves microbial reactions that require oxygen to go forward. The bacteria uses a carbon substrate as the electron donor and oxygen as the electron acceptor. Degradation of contaminants that are susceptible to aerobic degradation but not anaerobic often ceases in the vicinity of the source zone because of oxygen depletion. This can sometimes be reversed by adding oxygen in the form of air (air sparging, bioventing), ozone, or slow oxygen release compound (e.g., ORC(r)).
Aerobic dechlorination may also occur via cometabolism where the dechlorination is incidental to the metabolic activities of the organisms. In this case, contaminants are degraded by microbial enzymes that are metabolizing other organic substrates. Cometabolic dechlorination does not appear to produce energy for the organism. At pilot- or full-scale treatment, cometabolic and direct dechlorination may be indistinguishable, and both processes may contribute to contaminant removal. For aerobic cometabolism to occur there must be sufficient oxygen and a suitable substrate which allows the microbe to produce the appropriate enzyme. These conditions may be present naturally but often in the presence of a source area oxygen and a substrate such as methane or propane will need to be introduced.
Adapted from US. EPA 2006 Engineering Issue: In Situ and Ex Situ Biodegradation Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Sites
anaerobic: Direct anaerobic metabolism involves microbial reactions occurring in the absence of oxygen and encompasses many processes, including fermentation, methanogenesis, reductive dechlorination, sulfate-reducing activities, and denitrification. Depending on the contaminant of concern, a subset of these activities may be cultivated. In anaerobic metabolism, nitrate, sulfate, carbon dioxide, oxidized metals, or organic compounds may replace oxygen as the electron acceptor.
Anaerobic dechlorination also may occur via cometabolism where the dechlorination is incidental to the metabolic activities of the organisms. In this case, contaminants are degraded by microbial enzymes that are metabolizing other organic substrates. Cometabolic dechlorination does not appear to produce energy for the organism. At pilot- or full-scale treatment, cometabolic and direct dechlorination may be indistinguishable, and both processes may contribute to contaminant removal.
Quoted from US. EPA 2006 Engineering Issue: In Situ and Ex Situ Biodegradation Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Sites
architecture: "Architecture" refers to the physical distribution of the contaminant in the subsurface. Residuals that take the form of long thin ganglia or small dispersed globules provide a larger surface area that will dissolve much faster than if the same amount of liquid were concentrated in a competent pool.
Sources: For purposes of this discussion, a DNAPL source zone includes the zone that encompasses the entire subsurface volume in which DNAPL is present either at residual saturation or as "pools" of accumulation above confining units. In addition, the DNAPL source zone includes regions that have come into contact with DNAPL that may be storing contaminant mass as a result of diffusion of DNAPL into the soil or rock matrix.
source zone: For purposes of this discussion, a DNAPL source zone includes the zone that encompasses the entire subsurface volume in which DNAPL is present either at residual saturation or as "pools" of accumulation above confining units. In addition, the DNAPL source zone includes regions that have come into contact with DNAPL that may be storing contaminant mass as a result of diffusion of DNAPL into the soil or rock matrix.
focal ulceration: The process or fact of a localized area being eroded away.
metaplasia of the glandular stomach: A change of cells to a form that does not normally occur in the tissue in which it is found.
hyperplasia of the glandular stomach: A condition in which there is an increase in the number of normal cells in a tissue or organ.
histiocytic: Degenerative.
duodenum: First part of the small intestine.
microcytic: Any abnormally small cell.
squamous cell papillomas: A small solid benign tumor with a clear-cut border that projects above the surrounding tissue.
squamous cell carcinomas: Cancer that begins in squamous cells-thin, flat cells that look under the microscope like fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Squamous cell carcinomas may arise in any of these tissues.
jejunum: The middle portion of the small intestine, between duodenum and ileum. It represents about 2/5 of the remaining portion of the small intestine below duodenum.
ileum: The distal and narrowest portion of the small intestine.
squamous: Flat cells that look like fish scales.
metaplasia: A condition in which there is a change of one adult cell type to another similar adult cell type.
ossification: The process of creating bone, that is of transforming cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into bone.
clastogenesis: Any process resulting in the breakage of chromosomes.
neoplastic: Abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells.
ulceration: The process or fact of being eroded away.
leucocytosis: An elevation of the total number of white cells in blood.
neutrophils: A type of white blood cell.
chromodulin: A small protein that binds four trivalent chromium ions.
biomagnification: The increased accumulation and concentration of a contaminant at higher levels of the food chain; organisms higher on the food chain will have larger amounts of contaminants than those lower on the food chain, because the contaminants are not eliminated or broken down into other chemicals within the organisms.
exencephaly: Cerebral tissue herniation through a congenital or acquired defect in the skull.
everted viscera: Rotated body organs in the chest cavity.
To Be Considered: Documents, such as federal or state guidances, that are not legally binding but may be relevant to the topic in question.
gaining: A gaining surface water body is one where groundwater flows into it.
losing: A surface water body is losing when there is a permeable sediment bed that is not in contact with the groundwater allowing the surface water to seep through it.
fluvial: Of or pertaining to flow in rivers and streams.
lacustrine: Of or pertaining to a lake as in lacustrine sediments—sediments at the bottom of a lake.
lipid: Any class of fats that are insoluble in water.
lipophilic: Able to dissolve in lipids—in this case fatty tissue.
organelles: A part of a cell such as mitochondrion, vacuole, or chloroplast that plays a specific role in how the cell functions and membranes.
RfD: The RfD is an estimate of a daily exposure of the human population (including sensitive sub-groups) to a substance that is likely to be without "the appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime." An RfD is expressed in units of mg/kg-day.
autonomic: That part of the nervous system that controls non-conscious actions such as heart rate, perspiration and digestion.
ataxia: Lack of muscle coordination.
funnel-and-gate configuration: A system where low-permeability walls (the funnel) placed in the saturated zone direct contaminated ground-water toward a permeable treatment zone (the gate)
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Most creosote is produced from the distillates of coal tar, which is heated at successively higher temperatures to yield several medium distillates (naphthalene oils, middle oils, creosote oils, wash oils, anthracene oils, and heavy oils). Coal tar creosote is a blend of these oils (SCA 1994).
Ninety-seven percent of the creosote produced is used as a wood preservative and water proofing agent (ATSDR 2002). Micklewright (1998) estimated that about 230,000 tons of creosote preservative was used in the United States in 1997. Creosote may be applied to wood using pressure, dipping, deluging, or spraying. Wood products treated with creosote include telephone and other poles, railroad ties, pier and bridge decking and piles, home fencing, and playground equipment.
The EPA Toxics Release Inventory reports that 54,716 pounds of creosote was disposed of in 73 RCRA Subtitle C facilities, 352,724 pounds were lost to the air, and 5,374 pounds were discharged to surface waters in 2005. The National Priorities List contains at least 28 wood treating sites that used creosote.
The uncontrolled incineration of coal tar creosote-treated wood can release polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated dioxins, and furans into the air. Thus, the International Programme on Chemical Safety warns against burning treated wood. These compounds may also be released into the atmosphere on hot days when soluble creosote components evaporate directly from the surface of treated wood.
Marine pilings infused with creosote as a means of controlling animal and plant growth can leach creosote into adjacent soil and water supplies. Surface water also can be contaminated when spills, such as the one near Slidell, Louisiana, occur while transporting creosote waste on barges. Compounds in creosote not only accumulate in sediment, but also in organisms. In some cases, advisories have been issued against eating fish and shellfish contaminated with high levels of creosote compounds.
Before stringent environmental regulations were enacted in the mid-1980s, companies producing or using creosote typically built unlined, onsite creosote waste lagoons. Creosote could easily leach from these lagoons to the ground water. However, unless the soil is very porous, creosote rarely reaches the ground water because it is quite viscous. Nevertheless, even in fine-grained soils, small amounts of the soluble constituents of creosote can reach the ground water leading to bad tasting, greasy, and odorous water. An example of a site with soil and ground water contaminated with creosote is the Wyckoff/Eagle Harbor Superfund site, which is an 85-year old wood treatment facility that is undergoing cleanup (Superfund Fact Sheet).
For Further Information
Wood Preservation Statistics: 1997, A Report to the Wood Preserving Industry in the United States
Micklewright J. 1998. American Wood-Preservers' Association, Selma, AL
This profile covers coal tar creosote human health effects, chemical and physical properties, manufacturing volume data, potential for human exposure (environmental fate and transport), and analytical methods.
This document is a comprehensive review of the physical/chemistry properties, fate and transport, human and ecological health effects, and occurrence of coal tar creosote.
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Toxicological Profile for Wood Creosote, Coal Tar Creosote, Coal Tar, Coal Tar Pitch, and Coal Tar Pitch Volatiles 
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